Understanding workaholism: A review of causes and counseling approaches

Journal of Counseling and Development : JCD

Alexandria

Sep 1994

Authors: Seybold, Karen Colapietro

Authors: Salomone, Paul R

Volume: 73

Issue: 1

Start Page: 4

ISSN: 07489633

Subject Terms: Social research

Psychology

Employment

Counseling

Behavior

Abstract:

Alternative definitions and causes of workaholism are presented, and the role of "Type A" and obsessive-compulsive traits on the behavior of workaholics is discussed.

Copyright American Counseling Association Sep 1994

Full Text:

The meaning of work has attracted a great deal of attention in these times of economic uncertainty. In the early 1980s, and now in the 1990s, some have claimed that the value of work for the American (in this article the term American refers to those in the United States) worker has diminished and that the leisure ethic has replaced the work ethic in the United States (Vecchio, 1980). Machlowitz (1980) believed that "all around us, signs, symptoms, and signals seem to suggest that the almighty, all-American work ethic is eroding" (p. 1). Nevertheless, she held that in reality "the work ethic is not only alive and well, but in certain circles it is flourishing" (p. 5).

Work serves multiple needs and can be considered a healthy endeavor. In some cases, however, individuals may commit themselves too heavily to work to the detriment not only of themselves but of others as well. The concept of "workaholism" has been used to describe this overcommitment to work. Machlowitz (1980) estimated that approximately 5% of the population in the United States was workaholic, and Minirth, Meier, Wichem, Brewer, and Skipper (1981) claimed that "Americans suffer from unleashed workaholism" (p. 5).

Machlowitz (1980) noted that very little empirical research exists on workaholics, and Naughton (1987) added that "despite considerable popular interest in the phenomenon of workaholism, both career and organization theorists have devoted little attention to it" (p. 180). Our extensive literature review, using computer search techniques, which included such abstracting systems as Psychological Abstracts, Sociological Abstracts, and the Guide to Periodical Literature, revealed only a handful of empirical studies that contained the word workaholism in the title or abstract. Except for one very recent study (Spence & Robbins, 1992), which is discussed in the last section, the remaining five studies merely assigned the term workaholism as a conclusion to speculation or in a discussion section. In addition, we searched--unsuccessfully--in Dissertation Abstracts for the study on which Machlowitz (1980) apparently based her book. The virtual absence of important empirical re! search notwithstanding, a substantial number of writers have described the workaholic personality and possible causes of workaholism.

Although many writers have contributed to the understanding of workaholism, in most cases they have addressed this complex issue in an incomplete and fragmentary manner. The general goals of this article are to review and clarify the multiple sides of workaholism and to propose useful counseling strategies. The specific purposes of this article are to do the following:

1. Present alternative definitions and causes of workaholism.

2. Discuss the role of "Type A" and obsessive-compulsive traits on the behavior of workaholics.

3. Identify the effects of workaholism on workaholics themselves and on others.

4. Suggest counseling approaches to be used with the workaholic.

5. Propose research questions and issues that merit attention if the workaholism concept is to advance beyond conjecture.

ALTERNATIVE DEFINITIONS AND CAUSES OF WORKAHOLISM

Workaholism as an Addiction

Many authors have defined workaholism as an addiction to work. In particular, Oates (1971) stressed the malady's similarity to the more commonly recognized addiction of alcoholism and referred to the workaholic's "compulsion" to work and the "uncontrollable need to work incessantly" (p. 1). He took credit for inventing the word workaholic to denote the addictive element inherent in the behavior of such an individual whom he defined as "a person whose need for work has become so excessive that it creates noticeable disturbance or interference with his [sic] bodily health, personal happiness, and interpersonal relations, and with his smooth social functioning" (p. 4). This description was affirmed by Minirth et al. (1981), who defined the workaholic as one whose dependence on work exhibits a "noticeable disturbance on the rest of his [or her] life" (p. 28). Morris and Charney (1983) asserted that the workaholic demonstrates clear signs of classic addiction through such with! drawal symptoms as anxiety and depression that appear when he or she lacks work to do. Furthermore, Spruell (1987) referred to workaholism as "the addiction most rewarded in our culture" (p. 44), and Klaft and Kleiner (1988) claimed that workaholics are addicted not to the results of the work effort, but to work itself.

Workaholism as an Escape or Control Mechanism

Several authors have explained workaholism as an attempt to escape the unpleasantries of life through excessive work. For example, Bartolome (1983) distinguished between the workaholic and the nonworkaholic "prisoner of success" by stating that workaholics make efforts to escape their private lives through overcommitment to work, whereas nonworkaholics (who may work too much) simply neglect their private lives as they attempt to succeed. The difference, then, is in the worker's intent. Minirth et al. (1991) supported this idea: "A workaholic is anyone who uses busyness to avoid getting in touch with personal feelings, to stay clear of intimacy" (p. 49). Similarly, Klaft and Kleiner (1988) believed that workaholism "implies the escape or avoidance of problems" (p. 37). The desire to escape fear has also been cited as a cause of workaholism. Oates (1971) suggested that overwork may help to put off the fear of death, whereas Machlowitz (1980) stated that workaholism may be d! erived from the fear of failure, boredom, or laziness.

Others have defined workaholism, in part, as the individual's need for control in his or her life (Cantarow, 1979; Machlowitz, 1980). Klaft and Kleiner (1988) pointed out that the workaholic seeks to build "empires," consistently engaging in two or three projects at one time and refusing to delegate responsibilities and tasks to others. According to Machlowitz (1980), the issue of control is quite important to workaholics and may be associated with the notion that workaholics possess unlimited energy and an intensely competitive drive to succeed.

Workaholism Meets Competition or Self-Esteem Needs

Competition, a fundamental dynamic in capitalist societies, has also been cited as a cause of workaholism. For example, Spruell (1987) referred to the fierce competition that exists in today's work settings because too many "baby boomers" seek to win the same positions. Focusing on the competition between individuals as a factor in workaholism and referring specifically to women workaholics, Oates (1971) hypothesized that these women may actually be competing with their husbands for attention from outside sources. Machlowitz (1980) used the adjectives intense, energetic, competitive, and driven to describe workaholics whom she described as "those whose work habits almost always exceed the prescriptions of the job they do and the expectations of the people with whom or for whom they work" (p. 11). She indicated that the workaholic craves constant stimulation and possesses an overabundance of energy.

Taking another viewpoint, several authors have cited damaged self-image in early childhood as a cause of workaholism. As Thorne (1987) asked, "What makes people lose control over their lives to such an extent that their work becomes a drug? [It may be]...mishaps in [the] early development of self-image. Drugs make you feel more significant, less inadequate" (p. 71). Earlier, Oates (1971) postulated that children who have been deprived economically, culturally, and emotionally may develop workaholism in adulthood. In fact, the children of workaholics whom he interviewed believed that past poverty was the prime reason for their parents' addictions. Machlowitz (1980) also reflected on the childhood experiences of workaholics, stating that, as youngsters, they viewed the love of their parents as dependent on their success as children, rather than as unconditional. In addition, she explained that some workaholics may have simply followed the example of their workaholic parents! as role models. Similarly, Oates (1971) posited that some women workaholics have used their husbands as role models.

Workaholism as a Positive Trait

Several writers pointed out what could be considered the more positive traits of workaholics, traits that are derived from a love of work. For example, Cantarow (1979) speculated on the "joy in creativity" (p. 56) as an element of the workaholic personality. She also stressed that workaholics seek "passionate involvement and gratification" (p. 58) through work and that they seek such overinvolvement because they truly desire to do so. Machlowitz (1980) believed that the workaholic is simply someone who loves to work and is healthy and happy in his or her life-style. In fact, Machlowitz did not agree with others who claimed that workaholism is a disease. The addiction stems, she thought, not from the motivation to earn more money, but rather to earn what she referred to as "psychic income," defined as "responsibility, meaning, opportunity, [and] recognition" (p. 119). To the workaholic, satisfaction on the job matters more than satisfaction at home. Work and leisure can be! one and the same to workaholics: Work is how they have fun (Machlowitz, 1980). Franzmeier (1988) conceded that the workaholic may indeed be a productive and reliable employee, but he suggested that the workaholic at the same time may be "inefficient, unimaginative and self-destructive" (p. 73). All in all, comparatively few authors commented positively on elements of the workaholic life-style.

To summarize, an excessive commitment to work that is manifested by a neglect of other and important aspects of life--workaholism--has been described as the following: (a) an "addiction" that is uncontrollable or (b) an escape from personal problems, including the avoidance of intimacy with other persons. In addition, workaholism may be the result of(c) a deep and pressing need to control one's life; (d) an exceedingly competitive nature, often associated with a drive to succeed; (e) an impaired self-image and limited self-esteem as a result of childhood traumas including poverty; and (f) workaholic parents or role models.

THE ROLE OF TYPE A AND OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE TRAITS

Many authors have offered insights into the role that Type A and obsessive-compulsive traits may play in the behavioral manifestations of workaholism. As Savickas (1990) indicated, Type A behavior can be described as "competitiveness, time urgency, impatience, hostility, and overinvolvement in work" (pp. 152-15). Pollak (1979) listed the traits of the obsessive-compulsive person as perseverance, industriousness, obstinacy, ambition, and self-control-traits that he claimed are rewarded and respected in capitalist societies. Connecting such trait descriptions to the concept of workaholism, Machlowitz (1980) surmised that "the Type A behavior pattern corresponds quite closely to that of the obsessive-compulsive and probably to workaholics" (p. 44). Schwartz (1982) also connected the three behavioral patterns of Type A, obsessive-compulsive, and workaholic by stating that Type A individuals present a strong example of the obsessive style and that they are commonly addicted to! work.

Naughton (1987) suggested that certain obsessive-compulsive individuals may choose work as an area in which to manifest their obsessive personality traits. Furthermore, he pointed out that the examination of the obsessive-compulsive personality may indeed help in understanding workaholism. Thus, workaholics may simply be obsessive-compulsive individuals acting out their personality orientation through the work setting. In addition, Pollak (1979) stated that there exists "positive relationships between obsessional characteristics and involvement in the more compulsive kinds of vocational pursuits" (p. 235). Perhaps, then, obsessive individuals are drawn to certain types of work in which they can demonstrate their compulsive traits.

The obsessive-compulsive worker was described by Schwartz (1982) as one whose priority is not so much actually "doing the job, but being absorbed by it" (p. 430). Furthermore, he explained that the behavior of obsessed individuals is actually designed to try to retain control, where they can, to avoid the realization that they (in actuality) possess very little control over important aspects oflife. Referring to Type A workers, Savickas (1990) stated that they "tend to resist loss of control, even when it would be to their advantage to relinquish it" (p. 153).

THE EFFECTS OF WORKAHOLISM ON WORKAHOLICS THEMSELVES

Workaholism and Physical Health

Many writers have commented on the negative effects of workaholism on workaholics themselves and have noted that the workaholic lifestyle, characterized by anxiety and stress, can lead to physical illness in the individual. For example, Booth-Kewley and Friedman (1987) noted a definite connection between workaholism, Type A behavior, and coronary heart disease. Klaft and Kleiner (1988) followed up on this supposition and stated that workaholism may indeed lead to heart disease, but primarily in those individuals who also exhibit Type A personality traits. Earlier, Oates (1971) claimed that workaholics may actually develop physical illness as a way to express their dependency; illness is perhaps the only accepted means to receive unquestioned care by others. Another negative physical effect of workaholism, according to Kiechel (1989), is the workaholic's development of secondary addictions (e.g., alcohol abuse or overeating). Counter to all of these statements regarding im! paired health in the workaholic, however, Machlowitz (1980) held that "the fear that workaholics shorten their lives through stress may be unfounded. Stress is not necessarily bad" (p. 114).

Impact of Workaholism on Life-Style

The adverse physical effects of workaholism constitute just one of several negative developments attributed to the workaholic life-style. Other theorists have commented on the nonphysical, yet still injurious, effects of workaholism. Greenhaus and Kopelman (1981), for example, believed that interrole conflict may occur when an individual attempts to participate in many roles, each one presenting its own demands. This "work-nonwork conflict" (p. 14) can eventually lead to an individual's dissatisfaction with both of these important roles.

It was clear to many writers that workaholism significantly harms an individual's personal life. Even Machlowitz (1980) found that the workaholics she interviewed shared "feelings of failure" (p. 66) regarding their family lives. She also stated that "intimacy is incompatible with workaholism" (p. 77) and that workaholism may diminish one's sex drive and affect one's sex life. Rather than directly attributing these negative effects to overwork, however, Machlowitz stated that "it is the familial and societal pressures to conform to the norm that create conflict, guilt, and stress--not the work itself" (p. 117). Minirth et al. (1981) mentioned similar nonphysical results of workaholism, stating that "workaholism produces only anxiety, worry, hopelessness, hate, despair, frustration, loss, pain, grief, sleeplessness, mental stress" (pp. 34-35). In addition, constant interpersonal conflicts were a significant negative effect that Oates (1971)attributed to workaholism. In add! ition, burnout as a negative consequence of workaholism was mentioned by Nagy and Davis(1985) and Spruell (1987), who also listed physical illness, weight loss, and divorce as other possible consequences.

One of the more unique negative effects of workaholism was described by Franzmeier (1988) who believed that workaholics who decide to improve the balance between "work and pleasure" in their lives might discover that they suffer from "anhedonia, the inability to feel pleasure after pleasure has been postponed too long" (p. 73). Like an "unused muscle," wrote Franzmeier, "one's sense of pleasure can atrophy" (p. 73). Similarly, Kiechel (1989) suggested that, for the workaholic, leisure is no longer an enjoyable activity.

THE EFFECT OF WORKAHOLISM ON OTHERS

Workaholism and Family Life

Although there are varying opinions regarding whether the effects of work addiction on workaholics themselves are mainly positive or negative, most authors believed that the effects on those associated with the workaholic can be quite negative. Spouses and children of workaholics suffer greatly from their loved ones' addiction to work. L'Abate and L'Abate (1981) reported that in a marriage in which the husband is the workaholic pursuing "the American Dream," the wife often loses her own goals and dreams as she supports his efforts to attain his life desires. As the wife's own personal development fails, she suffers, and eventually the relationship and marriage suffer as well. Bartolome (1983) referred to the "estranged family" (p. 68) of the workaholic, whereas Spruell (1987) and Klaft and Kleiner (1988) wrote specifically of the marital failures of workaholics, marriages commonly ending in divorce.

It is clear that a workaholic's life revolves around significant time devoted to work endeavors. Therefore, little time is left for family life. According to Minirth et al. (1981), the workaholic has no time at all for any outside relationships, whether they involve family, friends, or God. They believed strongly, however, that the workaholic's family is most affected by the excessive time given to work and, thus, away from the family.

Oates (1971) discussed more damaging effects of workaholism on the spouse of a workaholic husband. He indicated that a husband's workaholism may be parallelled by his wife's actions; she becomes overinvolved in numerous activities. Furthermore, neglect of one's wife may provoke her to another addiction--alcoholism, In addition, even Machlowitz (1980), who emphasized the positive aspects of the workaholic life-style, recognized that those who live with workaholics will suffer.

Workaholism and Work Environments

Family members of the workaholic, however, are not the only ones who suffer. The workaholic in an organization can "suck the spirit right out of the team...[causing]...destructive competitiveness among coworkers" (Spruell, 1987, p. 43). The worst situation, according to Spruell, is when the workaholic in an organization is a manager.

In addition, Klaft and Kleiner (1988) indicated that the standards set by the workaholic manager can result in resentment, conflict, and low office morale. Machlowitz (1980) also suggested that, in some situations, the workaholic can be a liability for the employer. She noted that workaholics often find it difficult to work with other people, avoid delegating tasks and responsibilities to others, demand a great deal from and demonstrate a critical attitude toward others, and work inefficiently at times. Like the spouses of workaholics, co-workers also bear a difficult burden.

COUNSELING APPROACHES WITH WORKAHOLICS

According to Machlowitz (1980), workaholics do not possess much motivation to change their life-styles because they are satisfied with their circumstances. Consequently, individuals related to or associated with workaholics should not expect the work behaviors of workaholics to change. In addition, Klaft and Kleiner(1988) stated that a significant number of "experts" believe that workaholism is a relatively permanent trait. Therefore, they reasoned, a more realistic aspiration would be to try to live and work with workaholics rather than to attempt to change them.

Focus on Workaholic Thoughts and Feelings

Some authors have suggested that workaholics who attempt to change must carefully examine their thought patterns in order to resist those impulses that reinforce workaholism and to reestablish healthy priorities (Klaft & Kleiner, 1988; Minirth et al., 1981). Even so, Machlowitz (1980) held that workaholics can live successfully with their behavioral patterns. For example, she encouraged them to take the time to discover a job, an employer, and a work pace that fits their needs and, in addition, to find challenges in their work, making each day different from the last.

Another means of helping workaholics, proposed by Minirth et al. (1981), is to encourage them to examine their feelings. These authors reasoned that because workaholics have emotional problems associated with feelings, thinking, and behavior, counselors could help their workaholic clients by promoting a therapeutic focus on "underlying feelings of insecurity, rejection, worthlessness, and anger..." (p. 77).

Suggest Self-Help Programs

Although relatively few writers have addressed how counselors can assist workaholic clients, many have presented self-help procedures for workaholics themselves. Morse and Weiss (1955) suggested that workaholics should investigate alternatives to work, developing substitute activities that can provide feelings of pleasure that are similar to the sensations they usually experience through work.

More specifically, Kiechel (1989) exhorted workaholics to seek avenues other than work to satisfy their need for self-esteem. Similarly, Oates (1971) and Klaft and Kleiner (1988) believed that the exploration of new hobbies and outside interests could help most individuals to avoid workaholic tendencies. In addition, according to Franzmeier (1988), workaholics should try to find activities of an active nature (if one's work life is sedentary) that will allow them to excel outside of the work setting. Furthermore, he encouraged workaholics to learn to enjoy doing nothing at all at times-"without guilt."

Encourage Professional Intervention

We suggest that change may be possible for workaholics if they receive professional help and if they aspire to develop new patterns of behavior. For those workaholics who demonstrate significant Type A or obsessive-compulsive traits, psychological treatment offered by a trained mental health counselor may be necessary. For others who do not present obvious Type A or obsessive-compulsive traits (which may require longer term individual therapy) and who present themselves as voluntary clients, group counseling may be a successful complement to individual counseling. In a group setting, with the encouragement of other workaholic individuals who are experiencing similar challenges in their efforts to change, short-term as well as long-term personal goals can be established.

Naughton (1987) believed that workaholics experience different kinds of problems and that counselors, thus, should distinguish the individual from the problem. Although not proffering specific counseling suggestions, he proposed that workaholics be categorized into one of four types and suggested that counseling goals should correspond with these types. For example, those whom he labeled "compulsive workaholics" might be helped "to reduce the extent to which their behavior is dysfunctional to themselves and to the organization employing them" (p. 185). For "job-involved workaholics," counselors could assist them to deal with "the mismatch between the demands of [the] individual's job and the degree of that individual's work commitment" (p. 185).

Consider Group or Environmental Approaches

Noting the establishment of groups for other compulsions (such as alcoholism), one article deplored the absence of organized groups to address the recovery issues of workaholics (Kiechel, 1989). Nevertheless, Oates (1971) previously suggested that workaholics might take advantage of retreat centers and T groups as a way to develop a new, more healthy life-style.

The group can be important in helping each individual to set realistic micro-goals that, when met, can offer considerable satisfaction and a sense of accomplishment. Without the support and guidance of others, the typical workaholic would probably set very high, unrealistic goals for change. When not achieved, these unmet goals would seem like a serious failure, perhaps a self-fulfilling prophecy to the workaholic personality. The successful attainment of micro-goals, then, can motivate workaholics to continue their commitment to change.

On the job, managers can advise their employees not to devote themselves singularly to work (Bartolome & Evans, 1980). Without such encouragement, it becomes very difficult for workaholics to establish new priorities and healthier life-styles when those in the work environment disapprove of efforts to change (Naughton, 1987). For workaholics who are managers themselves, the development of a more balanced life can actually improve their management capabilities, making them more creative and less tense and rigid. In addition, such managers need encouragement to delegate tasks and responsibilities to others.

Support Family Involvement and Counseling

Regarding the role of the family in the remediation of workaholic behaviors, Bartolome (1983) believed that if workaholics could devise appealing ways of spending time with their families, dedicating some time to home life would not be viewed as disagreeable, but, instead, as enjoyable. Family expectations are often in need of change as well. When families begin to reward their workaholic members for nonwork activities, they (workaholics) are more likely to change their work patterns (Minirth et al., 1981; Oates, 1971).

Because a dysfunctional family environment can sometimes be a key source of the workaholic's desire to engross himself or herself in work (and it is almost a]ways the other family members that suffer from the workaholic's neglect), family counseling is another treatment alternative. Most likely, the family will need assistance to discover and understand the workaholic's reasons for overwork. If certain dynamics in the family have contributed to the workaholic's life-style (e.g., marital or interpersonal conflict), the counselor can help family members to change their patterns of behavior.

Another important issue to address is the probable resentment and pain that family members harbor because of the neglect they have suffered from the workaholic. Until this anger is expressed and resolved, it will be difficult, if not impossible, for the family to support and actively assist the workaholic to change. If family members have not been honest about their dissatisfaction, anger, or pain resulting from the workaholic's behavior, the counselor can provide a safe environment for them to reveal and confront their feelings. The counselor can then help the family members to improve their communication skills while, at the same time, clarifying the extent to which the workaholic has affected them all.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

Although the concept of addiction to work, labeled "workaholism" by Oates (1971), has been considered and discussed for more than 20 years, only recently has this construct been subjected to careful empirical study. The delay in moving from speculation to preliminary research is not unusual or surprising given the substantial amount of conceptual and psychometric work that must precede research efforts.

Thus, the correlational research by Spence and Robbins (1992), although preliminary in nature, is a welcomed beginning. After reviewing some of the literature related to workaholism, Spence and Robbins defined the workaholic as a person who "is highly work involved, feels compelled or driven to work because of inner pressures, and is low in enjoyment of work" (p. 162). They contrasted the workaholic with a "work enthusiast...[who is] highly work involved [but] high in [work] enjoyment and is not driven" (p. 162).

Based on their literature review and their own speculations, Spence and Robbins (1992) predicted positive correlations between workaholism (the three characteristics noted earlier) and such personal attributes as perfectionism, job stress, job involvement, and unwillingness to delegate responsibility. They then developed many self-report scales, claimed "satisfactory psychometric properties" (p. 163)--but did not report scale reliabilities or validities--and mailed a survey booklet to 800 members of the National Association of Social Workers who held academic appointments (i.e., instructors, professors, deans). Although they had an overall return rate of 49%, their final usable sample was 291 individuals (men = 134, women = 157).

Spence and Robbins (1992) found many positive and statistically significant correlations between workaholism (i.e., high work involvement, being driven to work, and low work enjoyment) and job stress, perfectionism, and nondelegation of work tasks. They also found that "workaholics of both sexes reported significantly more health complaints than work enthusiasts" (p. 174). Finally, in their discussion section, Spence and Robbins raised some questions to be addressed in future research.

We have detailed this pioneering study on workaholism because, in many respects, it exemplifies the steps that should be taken when planning quantitative research on a new construct. (Of course, the first question to be addressed--and one not easily or readily answered--is whether the construct is sufficiently independent of similar concepts to warrant investigation and instrument development. For example, if workaholism is very highly correlated with a personality characteristic such as obsessive-compulsiveness, the value of pursuing workaholism as a distinct concept would be questionable).

Assuming that workaholism will be found to be related to other psychological constructs and to correlate modestly with other personality characteristics, many preliminary conceptual questions arise that suggest future research. For example, the following questions can be considered: (a) To what extent does workaholism overlap with other constructs? Spence and Robbins's (1992) research addresses this question, in part. (b) Are there different types of workaholics? Naughton (1987) suggested four types. If so, how distinct are they? (c) Is workaholism an addiction, a dysfunction, or an aberrant method of work adjustment? (d) What definition of workaholism makes most sense and is supported by empirical study (versus a priori definitions)? (e) Is there support for the distinction, made by Spence and Robbins, between workaholism and work enthusiasm? and (f) Is there a correlational, or--better--causal, connection between workaholism and health complaints (Booth-Kewley & Fre! edman, 1987) such as physical health symptoms, chronic anxiety, high job stress, and other mental health problems?

After extensive research efforts to define the parameters of the concept (or concurrent with such efforts), the development of one or more sound measures of workaholism should follow. Research for inventory development is time consuming and costly because many revisions are necessary to gradually accumulate data that support the reliability (test-retest and internal consistency) and validity (construct and predictive, especially) of the measure. Not unreasonably (but unwisely), researchers often claim satisfactory psychometric properties prematurely or without publishing evidence to support such assertions. Finally, there are several research questions related to employee selection processes, employee assistance programs (EAP), and counseling interventions that merit empirical study. For example, the following questions can be considered: (a) Is the work performance of workaholics poorer than that of work enthusiasts (Spence & Robbins, p. 177)? (b) If so, should a hig! h workaholism score exclude an applicant for a supervisory or managerial position? (c) Are there common characteristics of workaholics that, given client motivation to change, would suggest specific clinical interventions? (d) In that instance, is group or family counseling more effective for promoting attitudinal and behavioral change than is individual counseling or psychotherapy? (e) Are traditional treatment programs for substance abuse (i.e., alcohol and other drug abuse) addiction, provided by EAP programs, applicable to workaholism? and (f) Can stress reduction or relaxation techniques ameliorate psychological or physical health symptoms?

Philosopher Bertrand Russell suggested that in a world in which no one worked more than 4 hours a day, there would be "happiness and joy of life, instead of frayed nerves, weariness and dyspepsia." Russell made an eloquent case for expanded leisure time in his 1932 essay titled "In praise of idleness." As have many others, he focused on the laboring aspects of work and ignored the satisfaction--even joy--that work can bring. Clearly, a healthy balance of meaningful productive work and recreative leisure activities can promote life satisfaction and mental health. Workaholics surely need the assistance of career and mental health counselors to achieve that balance.

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Karen Colapietro Seybold is the recruitment coordinator for the Counseling Center and Career Planning Office at the College of the Holy Cross, Worcester, Massachusetts. Paul R. Salomone is a professor in the Department of Counseling and Human Services at Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York. Appreciation is expressed to Barbara Pauley for her assistance in the preparation of this article. Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to Karen C. Seybold, 6 Margin Street, Worcester, MA 01604.