Senior Research Paper Format

SENIOR RESEARCH PAPER FORMAT

Basic Format of Paper:

1. Abstract

2. Introduction

3. Literature Review

4. Methodology

5. Findings: Data Collection and Analysis

6. Conclusion

7. References: Works Cited Page

Stella Z. Theodoulou and Rory O'Brien have developed an excellent guide for putting together a political analysis paper in their book, Methods for Political Inquiry: The Discipline, Philosophy, and Analysis of Politics published by Prentice-Hall in 1999. Much of the following is extracted from their text at pp. 218-222.Quotation marks are not put around all simply for the convenience of blending their comments and mine in a syllabus without constantly injecting quotation marks; however, extensive credit to them needs to be acknowledged.

1. Research Question

Think of yourself as having an idea or notion of what takes place in politics or ought to take place [if political philosophy then the "ought"] and then taking up the task of persuasively illustrating and supporting your idea or showing it to be incorrect [yes, sometimes intuition, common wisdom, what appears to be the case, etc. simply isn't accurate] with solid data and argumentation. This involves defining your terms carefully ["democracy", "voter support", "liberalism", "conservatism", "effective diplomacy", "autocracy", "political culture" etc.], gaining an awareness of what others have said on the topic [review of literature], establishing a research approach to gathering the necessary information [ "data" broadly interpreted may be quantitative, historical events, theoretical arguments, etc.], putting together the relevant information, and then analyzing what you have to come to a conclusion supported by your information. Political science seeks careful, methodical reasoning supported by well-developed data in as unbiased and objective fashion as is humanly possible [this last clause implies the struggle within all of us to be objective rather than to find only that which we wish to find].

It is important that early in the research process you define your purpose. In order to do this, think of what is your are trying to accomplish with your project. The question sets the purpose and may simply be seeking a description of a process, etc., or may set out specific hypotheses with regard to specific theories or a specific thesis.

A. Descriptive. Does your research question basically ask what something is in a fashion that seeks a description of some political phenomenon. This type of question fits much of traditional research that looks to historical description and analysis, studies of laws and constitutions, descriptions of political processes, analyses of political philosophical ideas, etc. By using the term "traditional" this is meant simply to indicate a broad classification of methods of study and not to imply less value to these studies. Much of contemporary research is traditional and well respected within the profession.

Description may involve a question such as: "How does the European Union function in enforcing human rights violations?"
Description may involve a thesis such as: "John Rawl's philosophy of liberalism has become the predominant theory for characterizing modern day liberalism."

B. Classification. This type of work typically tries to make sense of some pattern in society, or to classify institutions, groups, or political ideas. Examples are the attempt to classify countries as authoritarian or democratic, to classify public policy processes as Weberian or postmodern, or to group court decisions as strict-constructionist or judicial activism. This may be done qualitatively or quantitatively.

A classic example of quantitatively seeking to set classifications is the Almond and Verba study of political cultures using survey techniques to classify countries according to several types of political culture.
A study of court decisions to see is the Supreme Court is tending towards strict construction is a good example of classification that can be done either quantitatively or qualitatively or both in conjunction.

C. Compare and Contrast. Your project may seek to highlight the relationships between variables by comparing and/or contrasting some aspect of the political world. .

Generally one starts with a theoretical notion such as the following: "globalization is leading to a decrease in welfare state services."

Then a specific hypothesis [or set of hypotheses] is [are] set forth. Thus with the globalization theory one might then set out the hypothesis that Sweden in the 1990's decreased its welfare state services in the face of globalization.

This may then be broken down into even more specific hypotheses such as: health care services were reduced due to globalization, retirement pensions were reduced due to globalization, etc. Then, in this case, comparative study of a country [Sweden] over time is done.

A long-standing question involving democracy starts with the hypothesis that the development of an economic middle class means greater chances for democratic political development. For this study one might look at several countries in comparison. Another example is where the goal is to find various ways to handle societal concerns such as health policies, political fragmentation among various ethnic groups, and political/economic stability.
The things themselves that we measure are referred to as variables, and the process of figuring out how to measure them is called operationalization. The hypothesis is a professional explanation for the research question you started with. This should be a "testable" statement about how one variable affects or is affected by another variable. Your dependent and independent variables should be identified here, as well as the relationship between them.

D. Analysis. All research is oriented toward seeking an understanding of what the data reveal in terms of your research question. [Note how the research question must always be kept in mind when gathering and making sense of the data.] The use of "analysis" often is taken to imply quantitative data and statistical analysis but need not be restricted to quantitative studies. Historical analysis is not quantitative but is analysis. Likewise the analysis of ideas may be done with a careful reading of texts [e.g., Plato's Republic, law cases, speeches, news articles, etc.. Aristotle analyzed constitutions and ideas to reason that vast differences in wealth would make it hard to have a stable polity. Seymour Lipset, a sociologist, almost 2,000 years later sought to test this reasoning through quantitative techniques and the comparative study of numerous political systems. Jacques Barzun and Harry Graff in their book, The Modern Researcher, 1970 asserted: "The Historical method ascertains the truth by means of common sense. When that sense is systematically applied, it becomes a stronger and sharper instrument than is usually found at work in daily life. It shows a closer attention to detail and a stouter hold on consecutiveness and order. By the very exercise of these capacities it turns into a new power which acquires new intellectual possessions (p. 151)."]

2. Theoretical Framework

You want to tie your research question to a theory. Here's where the library research work really begins. You next need to discover how academics have dealt with the sort of question you are raising. Start by defining the area into which your question falls (in other words, define the subject area in which you are interested --for example, voting behavior or welfare reform). Then, use the various library resources at your disposal to find examples of professional journal articles and books that relate to your topic. Next, you must complete two tasks. First, identify the theory (or theories) that are behind the research others have done on your subject. What sort of theoretical framework do professional researchers in your field use top create their hypotheses: Second, answer the question, "How do others attempt to explain the phenomena in this subject area?" This is the heart of the review of literature section of you paper.

3. As you begin your library research, be sure to do the following:

A. Develop a working schedule for research and stick to it! Unfortunately, the research process is often tedious and time consuming. Don't expect to complete all of your library research in just one or two sessions. You will probably find that the more time you spend in library research at the beginning of your project, the easier it will be for you at the end of the semester.

B. Don't waste resources. Try to use as many of the resources you discover that pertain to your topic as possible. Keep notes on the bibliographic entries you encounter in the literature. Make sure you know where to return later on, in case you need a resource you discovered earlier. This is especially important when using Internet sources since locating them again may require knowledge of a rather lengthy Internet address or a process of getting to them through the various database searches available Online.

C. Ask for help. Librarians are there to help you get through the research process, and the more questions you ask, the better your project will turn out in the end.

[The use of the Internet opens up great opportunities for research, but it is often a bit confusing. Check with your professor for how to reach various resources on the Internet. Sometimes one has to become clever in searching through the multitude of Web sites. Some of these are lists on this Web site. Click here to go the "resources" page.]

4. Format for the Paper.

A. Abstract

    Open your paper with a brief abstract (these are generally single-spaced and written as one long paragraph) giving an overview of your entire project. The abstract quickly lets the reader know what your project is all about. If you are unsure as to how an abstract looks or what its foundation is, look at almost any article included in a professional political science journal. You will find that the article begins with a brief statement that allows you to get an idea of what the article is all about! This is particularly helpful to the researcher who is attempting to review a wide range of contributions to the literature. Without even reading through an article you are able at least to get a general idea about approach, focus, and type of research of its author.

B. Introduction

    In the introductory part of your paper, discuss your topic in greater detail, presenting information with regard to your central theory, the hypothetical relationship between variables, and the sort of research project you have undertaken.

C. Literature Review

    As you review the literature relevant to your topic, you will be writing about

what other commentators have had to say on this topic

the research that has been done in your area

whether there are consistent findings in the literature

    Your literature review should be used to develop the argument behind your provisional explanation for the research question. Remember: it is more important what you say about an article than what the author of the study has to say about his or her research project. Review and critique the literature by analyzing both the study and findings of the author. You may include the following in your literature review:

the subject of the article

the author's purpose for writing

the author's main points

the relevance of the article to the field of study [especially general and particular theories which serve as either part of your study or provide an intellectual backdrop for your study], and/or any practical or policy implications.

    You can paraphrase and use short quotations from important articles [remembering to cite them carefully!]
    Use the research materials you have gathered to tie together the different aspects of your hypothesis [or basic idea or political phenomenon you are studying].
[Incidentally, know the plural of each of these since you may be working with more than one hypothesis, etc.: hypotheses, ideas, phenomena.]
Try to show the direct relationship between your problem [subject of study] and the literature. You want to paraphrase the literature as much as possible, not re-create it. In other words, you do not need to recount all aspects of an article or book in your literature review. The ideal is to put what the researcher as said "into your own words." [Again, be careful to use proper citation and avoid plagiarism.]
The review of literature is to serve as backdrop of general ideas and theories against which you will place your study. Ideally, when you write your conclusion it should tie back to your basic question, theory, hypothesis [or plurals of some or all of these] and contribute to a better understanding of the broader questions involved. For example, if your study is on the construction of democracy in Iraq, your review of literature would include literature on theories of what is considered needed for the construction of democracy and theories about success and failure in this action. You will, of course, need a working definition of democracy that fits with the general literature or, if not, carefully explains why you have chosen a different conceptual framework. Your conclusion should then not only explain the possibilities of constructing democracy in Iraq but fit your findings into the broader debate on what is needed for successful construction of democracy in a country.

D. Methodology.

Here you indicate how you are going about your study. What data are you seeking, how, and from where. If questionnaires are used, they are discussed here. If you are going to use philosophical texts, here you indicate which ones and that your study will be a qualitative study analyzing the texts themselves, or the texts plus the secondary literature. If the time-frame for your study is relevant, here is where you indicate it , ETC.

E. Findings: Data Collection and Analysis

In this section you will discuss in detail the particulars of your research project. This involves evaluation and presentation of results. This is the heart of your paper.
F. Conclusion

    In your conclusion, integrate the material you discovered in the professional literature on your topic with your findings in your project. Elaborate further on your analysis of the data, if appropriate. Discuss your findings in the light of prior research and indicate how what you have found supports or refutes the current literature on the topic.
This is also a good place to suggest further study relating to the study you have done. You might suggest how the results of your study might be used in political decision making, e.g., the structure of an electoral system, the administration of a public policy, the conditions necessary for particular political institutions, process, or events.

THE GOOD ARGUMENT

Think of your conclusion as the summing up of your argument as to why your thesis or theory is accurate or inaccurate. In a descriptive study such as the way in which the new constitution was developed in Iraq, your conclusion should indicate some summary comments of key elements emerging from the description that help one to understand key variables that seem to have been operative and suggest some theories which might logically emerge from your description. If it is the description of a set of ideas, the conclusion should provide some concluding comments as to the basic significance and nature of the ideas [e.g., a conclusion on a study of Rousseau might be to indicate importance of social contract ideas in the realm of democratic thinking].. The ability to demonstrate the accuracy of an hypothesis or idea concerning politic is at the heart of political science. Whether one reads political philosophers or empirical political scholars the best of them are providing substantive, persuasive arguments for why one should understand politics in the manner in which they are indicating. Whether it's an argument for the redistribution of wealth for justice in a philosophical sense or why democracy works or doesn't work in certain situations, or what led to the different international behaviors of states in the U.N. votes on a particular issue, the key intellectual task is persuasive, logical and reasonable arguments from substantial information.

G. References --- Works Cited Page.

A large bibliography provides information as to useful sources concerning your topic but does not clearly reveal which sources you have actually used in the he paper. A "Works Cited" page indicates both diversity and quantity of resources. A good research paper should involve utilization of numerous good sources in an effective and meaningful manner. To rely on relatively few resources [e.g., a couple of excellent books], is not developing one's own research skills.   Be sure to follow proper form for bibliographical entries.

[The American Political Science Association has a guide for citations. For examples of how to cite various sources click here to go to the Maris Web page location and then click on either the bibliographical citations link at the top of the page or the in-text citations link. The APSA uses style from the Chicago Manual of Style which is much more complete. References on the Maris Web page above will also take you to Web sites for the Modern Language Association and American Psychological Association formats. Citing Internet sources is in its infancy but examples can also be located through the Maris Web page or one of the Web sites indicated on the Web page. Books available generally in the bookstore include the MLA Handbook and Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Term Papers. You might also look at an article or two in the American Political Science Review to check format. Whichever format you use, BE CONSISTENT]

LENGTH OF PAPER: This depends on the nature of the research. Some quantitative papers involve a large amount of statistical analysis captured in relatively few pages on tables and graphs. Most papers should be presented in a number of pages that match the typical article published in a good political science journal. In the American Political Science Review an article runs between 15 and 20 single-spaced pages. [30-40 double-spaced]. The depth and breadth of the research is what is critical to determining a good paper, not its length.