JUSTICE
PHILOSOPHICAL THINKING
The Gorgias and this section of the course focuses on questions of "ought" as compared only to "is" in politics. [Often referred to as normative theory as compared to empirical, the latter based on the "is" of human life. A problem is that there are hefty debates as to whether "ought" and "is" can be so easily separated. We will mention this from time to time in the course.] Justice is at the heart of the writings of political philosophers who are seeking to set forth how we "ought" to behave towards one another within the political framework [whether one can so easily separate the public political framework and the private life is often part of the debate]. The philosopher seeks the essence of reality and the source for how we determine right and wrong towards one another.
1. Philosophy -- what is it? This is a topic of much debate. Below are some definitions which, by no means, exhaust the definitions available, but some basic, general orientations which fit with what one usually means.
Webster's short dictionary definition (2nd ed.): "love of, or search for wisdom" -- "theory or logical analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought, knowledge, and the nature of the universe" -- "the general principles or laws of a field of knowledge, activity, etc. -- " a particular system of principles for the conduct of life"
John Caputo refers to the traditional idea of philosophical knowledge as "the idea that there is some sort or entity or principle or condition which philosophers can come up with, so long as they argue carefully, which 'explains' or 'grounds' what the rest of us are doing." [Gary Madison, Working Through Derrida]
Alasdair MacIntyre -- Philosophical theories give organized expression to concepts and theories already embodied in forms of practice and types of community. As such they make available for rational criticism and for further rational development those socially embodied theories and concepts of which they provide an understanding.” [Note the emphasis on socially embodied" aspects of philosophy.]
Leo Strauss -- “Philosophy in the strict and classical sense is the investigation of the eternal order or of the cause or eternal causes of all things." [Quoted by Stanley Rosen in Hermeneutics as Politics.]
2. Why philosophic reasoning? Note points made in class re: sense of justice, legitimacy factor in constructing a stable political order and also Rawls' practical politics reasoning comment below.
Rawls: the practical use of political philosophy for everyday politics: “to focus on deeply disputed questions and to see whether, despite appearance, some underlying basis of philosophical and moral agreement can be uncovered. Or if such a basis of agreement cannot be found, perhaps the convergence of philosophical and moral opinion at the root of divisive political differences can at least be narrowed so that social cooperation on a footing of mutual respect among citizens can still be maintained.”
Plato, Gorgias: You need not learn all the arguments presented in the text, but should read carefully to pick up the main points. The arguments, following a dialectical form of logic ,are worth trying to understand in order to obtain a sense of what is essential to arriving at the conclusions presented in the text. Note that Plato is accused of using "word games" here to make the points, thus setting the stage to be sure the argument comes out as he desires. However, simply to see the argument as such is to miss some of the strong, and perhaps persuasive, to you, points in the process.
1. Justice concerns "right" relationships among persons person-to-person and government to persons [public justice as distinguished from the idea of private justice among individuals and groups of individuals]. The Gorgias is basically concerned with what?
2. Lord Acton's famous phrase "Power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely" is frequently quoted in politics. How do Plato's ideas relate to this notion?
3. Paul Simon, who was a U.S. Senator from Illinois for many years wrote a book in 2003 titled Our Culture of Pandering. He is referring to various forms of political pandering. How does this relate to ideas in the Gorgias? What is a "statesman" as presented in the Gorgias?
4. Robert Pirsig in his popular novel Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance in the last quarter of the 20th century sought to discover how one knows basic values, if any. At one point he exclaims: “
Quality is shapeless, formless, indescribable. To see shapes and forms is to intellectualize. Quality is independent of any such shapes and forms. The names, the shapes and forms we give Quality depend only partly on the Quality. They also depend partly on the a priori images we have accumulated in our memory. We constantly seek to find, in the Quality event, analogues to our previous experience.”
How might his comment on analogues tie into Plato's references to doctors, carpenters, cooks, etc.?
5. What is the essential question in the Gorgias?
6. What is the basic answer to the essential question?
7. What lies at the heart of whether one accepts or rejects Plato's answer to the question?
8. Should Callicles' answer be rejected? Why or why not?
9. What is Plato's concern for "conventions" of the day?
10.Robert Pirsig in his popular novel Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance in the last quarter of the 20th century stated regarding technical work -- in his quest for a set of personal values:
“What really counts in the end is … peace of mind, nothing else. The reason for this is that peace of mind is a prerequisite for a perception of that Quality which is beyond romantic Quality and classic Quality and which unites the two, and which must accompany the work as it proceeds. The way to see what looks good and understand the reasons it looks good, and to be at one with this goodness as the work proceeds, is to cultivate an inner quietness, a peace of mind so that goodness can shine through.”
--- at 267: “Peace of mind produces right values, right values produce right thoughts. Right thoughts produce right actions and right actions produce work which will be a material reflection for others to see of the serenity at the center of it all.” – hence “when working on a motorcycle, as in any other task is to cultivate the peace of mind which does not separate one’s self from one’s surroundings.” – It produces a “material reflection of a spiritual reality.”
--- “Programs of a political nature are important end products of social quality that can be effective only if the underlying structure of social values is right. The social values are right only if the individual values are right. The place to improve the world is first in one’s own heart and head and hands, and then work outward from there.” --- How might this relate to the Gorgias?
11. Note the constant references to "body-soul." This dualism is the subject of much debate and argument in philosophy that continues presently. If you take any courses in the history of philosophy or introduction to philosophy you will become more acquainted with this.
We carry "bits and "pieces" in our Western cultural conscience of all of the above. How we sort them out and with what emphasis is often the call. For this we need also to know why, thus philosophical reasoning. Thus we need to know what we intend by "the common good" [ a popular political refrain], "rule of law" in the face of the felt need for civil disobedience," a "just" system of taxation, "good" politicians and "effective" leaders," "fair" elections, "fair" equality of opportunity, rule by the "qualified," and "promote the general welfare" [U.S. Constitution]. Philosophical reasoning goes beyond ideology to explore the basic ideas we hold dear to our notions of justice and see if they are reasonable [others might see them as acceptable] and rational [premises and conclusions fit -- with awareness of source of premises]. This is not to exclude the emotive, romantic, irrational side of human life but to place it in a framework of intellectual understanding so as to understand and be able to constantly adjust, when necessary, that which motivates us and provides the impetus for our decisions and actions.
John Rawls in his late 20th Century Theory of Justice simply expresses the wisdom of millennia in saying that human beings have a sense of justice. We have the capacity to explore this sense of justice to arrive at the best answers humanly possible concerning the relationship among persons as they interact in what we see as the political system. This is philosophical thinking within the domain of politics. Rawls also indicates the practical use of political philosophy for everyday politics:
“to focus on deeply disputed questions and to see whether, despite appearance, some underlying basis of philosophical and moral agreement can be uncovered. Or if such a basis of agreement cannot be found, perhaps the convergence of philosophical and moral opinion at the root of divisive political differences can at least be narrowed so that social cooperation on a footing of mutual respect among citizens can still be maintained.”
Key classical ideas in political philosophy:
1.The Republic
--the "Good" and justice
--everyone has a role to play given one's talents -- meritocracy
2. Natural Justice/Law: Aristotle/Roman Heritage/Constitutionalism
--reason and law
--law behind the law?
--rule of law
--democracy less significant than constitutionalism?
3. Power, not justice is the question? [Machiavelli]
-- the "is" dominates
4. The Social Contract as the constitutional glue? [modern liberalism and pluralistic democracy] ---Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Rawls, Nozick
--hypothetical agreements
--sovereignty of the people
--individualism
5. "Community" , not "the individual" is the answer? [tradition, social solidarity, community identity, patriotism, nationalism, "the common good", a "public philosophy" --- Plato, Burke, neo-Aristotelians like Sandel, Amitai Etzioni]
6. Why obey? When not to? legitimacy and justice
--"good" permeates? philosopher kings or at least enlightened elites? public philosophy and statesmen
--social contract
--civil disobedience